Marketing Research( Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marketing Research( - Essay Example It also appears that getting services right the first time is repeated in question 4 and this can lead to confusion rendering the results to questions 3 and 4 unreliable. Question 7 asks for the respondents assess employee’s education, intelligence and accomplishments. This may be a question that respondents cannot answer truthfully. While they may be able to assess intelligence, they cannot assess education and accomplishments. Questions 6, 7 and 8 of Part E may be problematic as these questions ask for narrative responses. While narratives can be very useful for researchers, they are very difficult to calculate and put in a statistical perceptive (Downing & Clark 2010, p. 291). Some of the questions are multiple choice, for example the respondents can choice either yes or no answers. In other places the questions require the recording of wait times. However, the answers could have been in multiple choice terms to facilitate a more efficient method for calculating results and compiling statistics. The remainder of the survey is categorically scaled provided for a range of answers indicated the level of agreement from 1-7. This format could have been used through the survey. Part E which covers demographic information should have been solely multiple choice. Rules for Preparing a Good Survey Survey questions should be concise and clear to avoid ambiguous or unreliable results.

Family violence Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Family violence - Assignment Example According to Barnet et al. (2011), family violence refers to violence between family member’s i.e. husbands, wives, children and parents. The APA dictionary of psychology defines domestic violence as â€Å"any action by a person that causes physical harm to one or more members of his or her family unit† (p.23).Family violence can be learned through cultural values which are repeatedly communicated through media and institutions that tolerate it. Alcohol and drug abuse could be another force of family violence. According to Halter & Varcarolis (2014), alcohol and drugs cloud ones judgment (p. 540). However; alcohol could be used as a scapegoat to avoid arrests and punishment when caught in the act. Anger is another force that could cause people to be entrapped in family violence. Lack of skills to handle anger and stress may cause overwhelming problems for both victim and perpetrator as forms of communications may have broken down (p.11). Psychological conditions such as bipolar may contribute to cases of violence. Such conditions should be treated and people informed of the condition in case of an attack. In all different cases discussed above aggression stands out as perpetrators of violence use this tool to overpower their victims. It is also important for afflicted families and individuals to come out and seek the protection of the law and access counseling services. The children’s act 38 of 2005 gives clear outlines children’s rights and parents responsibilities towards children. The law has provisions of protection against physical child abuse. Many facets have been associated with child abuse. These include individual pathology, parent –child interaction, past abuse in the family and situational factors. (Bryant, 2011) discusses different theories of physical abuse according to Crosson-Tower (2008) which are linked to the children’s

Bipedal Hominid and Quadrupedal Apes: Muscle and Skeletons

Bipedal Hominid and Quadrupedal Apes: Muscle and Skeletons Differences between the hip skeleton and musculature of bipedal hominid and quadrupedal apes. Ilium Humans: Reduced height, relative wideness (it is important in bipedal posture, because the weight of the body does not concentrate onto the spinal cord only). Orientation of blade (the curvature and the mediolateral orientation of the iliac blades help the Glutei medius and minimi to act as abductors and they can also assist in support of the trunk. This curved shape also helps in balancing the upper body during locomotion, because the external and internal oblique muscles attach to the iliac crest). Acetabular margin and the well-developed anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) reflects the bipedal locomotion. Rectus femoris takes its origin here, that extends the leg at the knee. Rectus femoris is very important in some of the leaping and clinging prosimians, as the galagos and lemurs, because Rectus femoris is a leaping muscle in them. Nevertheless, in apes, there is no large AIIS. AIIS is also a place for the iliofemoral ligament in humans that prevents the hip joint from overextending. Apes: There is no S-shaped curve visible at the iliac crest and the crest projects laterally. Therefore, the iliac fossa orients anteriorly and the gluteal surface projects posteriorly. This orientation keeps the trunk in an upright position during sitting or squatting. In case if they want to walk bipedally, the Glutei medius and minumi muscles medially rotate the flexed thigh at the hip while in humans they abduct the extended thigh. The long iliac crest is an adaptation to climbing. Latissimus dorsi origins from here and inserts into the humerus. Because this is one of the most important climbing-muscles, the longer the iliac crest is, the better aid is in climbing. The auricular surface and the iliac tuberosity are smaller in apes. It is mainly because of the fact that their weight does not focus on their pelvic region and lower limbs (hind limbs). Ischium Humans: Ischial tuberosity is an attachment for the hamstring muscles (Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus and Adductor magnus hamstring part). At a superior pressure during the bipedal posture, the posterior part of the sacrum elevates, and pulls upwards the ischial tuberosity. The ischial tuberosity which is located just below the great sciatic notch reflects the bipedalism. Apes: Long ischium. The ischial tuberosity is wider in apes than it is in humans and it does not look so pulled-up in apes. The ischial tuberosity lacks the facets for the hamstring and adductor muscles. Pubis Humans: Pubic crest and pubic tubercle are important in bipedal locomotion as well, because the pubic crest serves as an attachment for Rectus abdominis that supports the guts and pubic tubercle is associated with the inguinal ligament, which helps in supporting the trunk. The iliopubic eminence is the divider of the Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS) and the AIIS. Here takes place the iliopsoas muscle that helps in flexing the hip and supporting the upper body on the hip joint. Apes: Apes lack all these human characteristics at the pubis: they do not have a pubic crest nor tubercle, and because their pelvis orient differently, their ilipsoas groove and iliopubic eminence are missing. The pubic symphysis in apes are usually fuses together, while it only rarely happens in humans. Acetabulum Humans: The orientation of the acetabulum is inferior-lateral-anterior. The superior margin of acetabulum must cope with the biggest weight/pressure, it developed a very thick cartilage, so did the head of the femur. This is called laubrum. Very strong, Z-shaped, ligaments are present here. The depth of the acetabulum can tell us a lot about the mobility of the hip joint. If the acetabulum is shallow, it reflects more flexibility. The acetabulum in humans is shallow compared to many of the African apes (but chimpanzees), but it is deep compared to the orang-utans. Apes: The ligaments are weaker than in humans. Sacrum, coccyx Humans: The human sacrum contains five fused vertebrae averagely. However, it can be varied between four and six. The coccyx stands from four fused vertebrae, usually. The sacrum in humans is wider than in apes and it is not so long as an ape sacrum. This unique shape is very distinctive regarding to bipedalism. The wider sacrum means more distance between the sacroiliac joint, which helps in transferring the weight and the pressure from pubic symphysis. A wider distance at this joint also means a larger birth-canal. Apes: In apes and monkeys the number of the fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx may vary from species to species. The shape of the sacrum is not so wide and more elongated. It reveals that they do not support so huge weight on their pelvic region as do the humans. Femur Humans: The human femur is longer than that of an ape. The lateral condyle in humans is more prominent. The bicondylar surface is larger in humans than in apes. It is because of the centre of gravity of the body. Apes: Medial condyle is larger in apes. More flexibility at the hip joint. B, Actions of muscles at the knee and ankle joints during bipedal locomotion. Observed features in ancestral hominid fossils. Extensors of the leg at the knee joint: Tensor fasciae latae Quadriceps femoris muscles (Rectus femoris, Vasti lateralis, medialis, intermedius) Flexors of the leg at the knee joint: Sartorius Gracilis (also can assist in medial rotation) Hamstring muscles (Biceps femoris {it is also the lateral rotator of the knee joint}, Semimembranosus, Semitendenosus {they also medially rotate the knee joint when the leg is flexed} Gastrocnemius Popliteus (weak flexor, but it is a medial rotator of the leg) Plantaris Muscles that act at the ankle (talotibial) joint: Tibialis anterior (dorsiflexion) Extensor hallucis longus (dorsiflexion) Extensor digitorum longus (dorsiflexion) Peroneus tertius (dorsiflexion) Peroneus longus and brevis (plantar flexion) Gastrocnemius (plantar flexion) Soleus (plantar flexion) Plantaris (plantar flexion) Flexor digitorum longus (plantar flexor) Tibialis posterior (plantar flexor) Fossil records: Australopithecus afarensis: The tibia and the fibula are quite interesting. We can observe adaptations to both arboreal and bipedal signs. This is called mosaic morphology. The examined specimens: AL 129-1b, AL 288-1aq and AL 333x-26). Ape-like elements: short border to the lateral condyle, in the first two specimens, there are features that general in the apes (under the epicedial there was the hollowed-out appearance) which means that the Tibialis posterior attached to the lateral side of the tibia instead of the posterior side. Other attachments such as semimembranosus and gracilis are also rather ape-like. Nevertheless, other A. afarensis specimens show bipedal characteristics: Distal articulation surface of the tibia (the angle of the ankle joint and the tibia and fibula). But, yet again, there are ape-like features also on the distal part of fibula: the direction of the articular facet, (orients distally rather than medially as in the modern humans), they have an anteriorly oriented peroneal groove on their fibulae while it faces laterally in modern humans. The A. afarensis Lucy (AL 288-1) also owns these mosaic morphological features: the posteriorly oriented distal tibial angle shows similarities with the apes, while in other afarensis specimens the angle is lateral, which is a human feature. The carrying angle at the knee joint also shows more similarities to the modern human specimens. This can reveal an individual arboreal habit of Lucy, and a more developed bipedalism in the other specimens. Homo habilis: The H. habilis specimens do not cause so many arguments than the australopithecines. They have more human like features in their lower legs and less ape-like features. Although, they do not lack these features (rounded anterior border of the tibia, in humans the insertion area of the Flexor digitorum longus is bigger than that of the tibialis posterior it is quite the opposite in the habilis. The attachments of other muscles soleus, popliteus show sort of a transition between apes and humans, etc.). The Neanderthals: The fibula and the tibia are very robust, but bear the human characteristics. Q2, Evolution of the early hominid foot The main characteristics of the human foot include the presence of the arches, the calcaneocuboid joint, the proportions of the major parts of the foot, the shape of the ankle-joint and the fact that the hallux cannot be opposed. The arches in foot are quite unique, the apes do not have arches (they have only one arch, the transverse arch). In humans, apart from the plantar aponeurosis, there are other ligaments that aid in having these arches: the spring ligament, the short plantar ligament and the long plantar ligament. The length of the distal digits of the toes are much shorter in humans than in apes, however, the size of the big toe is about the same. The foot of Australopithecus afarensis, such as in the leg, shows mosaic morphology. It means that certain features are similar to the modern humans, while others share similarities with the apes. The human-like morphology: the talus which also has both human and ape characteristics together with the tibia and fibula, shows a more human like joint at the talotibia. Although, the shape of the talus is rather ape-like. Other signs that reveal a more human appearance in the afarensis foot are the talar trochlear shape, the direction of the ankle joints axis and of the Flexor hallucis longuss groove which suggest that the movements of the afarensis were very similar to those of the modern humans. The shape of the fifth metatarsals reveal a very similar ability of dorsiflexion as it is present in modern humans. Their navicular bones in appearance are more ape-like, but the presence of the groove of the spring ligament proves that they might have similar arches than the modern humans have. The possibility of the bipedal locomotion can be traced down also by the human-like lateral cuneiform, although, its hook makes it look more ape like. Nevertheless, the ape-like curves of the phalanges suggest that they might be arboreal. The calcareous also have both human and ape like features, the medial cuneiform is rather ape like, so is the first metatarsals rounded head. The foot of Paranthropus robostus has several human-like characteristics. These features are the following: the hallux probably was adducted unlike in the apes where the big toe is rather abducted, the plantar ligaments suggest similarities to the human foot, the first metatarsal suggests that it bore more weight than the apes because of its robust appearance, but other features on the first metatarsal bone reveal ape-like features, too. According to the article of Susman and Brain (1988, mentioned in Aiello and Dean), it is very likely that the Paranthropus robostus was bipedal but in a different way than the modern humans. The foot of the Homo habilis: The biggest argument is caused by the tarsal bones of a young Homo habilis (OH 8 from Olduvai Gorge), because some researchers do not think that the human characteristics of this specimens foot bones are good enough to be classified as humans. The elements of the foot show the signs of the bipedalism even those agree with this who do not think that this specimen deserves to be included into the Homo genus but, perhaps, in a completely different way as it is seen in the modern humans. Another talus bone, the KNM-ER 813 from Koobi Fora, has less problems with its classifications, as it shows more similarities to the talus of the modern humans. The first metatarsal is the most robust, and the fifth metatarsal bone of the OH 8 is the second, while in apes the fifth metatarsal bone is the weakest. The size of the foot length of the OH 8 is also more similar to the structure of the human foot. The fossil record suggests that the opposability of the big toe of OH 8 is not present, but the adduction of it can be observed. The ability of grasping is also very likely, though. The foot of the Neanderthals: Interestingly, the evidences reveal that the opposability of the big toe might be somewhere between the modern humans and the living apes. Others deny it, because of the more human characteristics in the tarsometatarsal joint, which can be varied on a great scale even in modern humans. Typical Neanderthal features are the short proximal phalanx of the big toe and the short neck of the talus. The possible signs of the bipedalism in the fossil evidences: Apart from the bones of the foot other skeletal remains can reveal the erected body posture and the possible bipedal walking habits. A relative longer arm may be a sign of the arboreal life-style, or partly arboreal living circumstances. Nevertheless, Lucy has relatively short fingers, not ape-like, long ones (JOHANSON-EDEY 1990) The shape of scapula and the orientation of the glenoid fossa also can help to answer this question. A small fragment of an Australopithecus afarensis scapula suggests that its owner had a more ape-like in this question, than human like. In apes the glenoid fossa faces towards the cranium and this feature can be observed also in case of this fragment. A more complete scapula which derives from an A. africanus (Sts 7) can tell us more details about the possible functions of the pectoral girdle. This scapula looks very similar to the scapula fragment of the afarensis specimen (AL 288-1l), and they both bear more similarities to the pectoral girdle of the ape s, especially to the orang-utans. The ribcage has more ape-like characteristics in its appearance. The shape of the vertebral column, however, widens distally (the lumbar vertebrae are the widest) as it appears in humans, which is another possible sign of the bipedal locomotion. The pelvic girdle shows more evidences for the mosaic morphology yet again. The iliac crest is rather human-like, although it is more elongated laterally and the acetabulum orients more anteriorly. Perhaps this is the reason why A. afarensis has a relatively very long femoral neck. The iliac blades direct interiorly, as well. The shape of the sacrum is very wide another human-like sign, however its posterior segment is not as curved anteriorly as it is in the modern humans. According to Johanson (JOHANSON-EDEY 1990), Lucys pelvis is adapted to the bipedal locomotion as well as to the possibility to give life to large-headed babies, as her pelvis is so wide. All these features make likely that the A. afarensis could walk bipedally, but in a more complicated way. The anteriorly faced acetabulum could result a very heavy bipedalism. On the femoral head, we can observe a stronger fovea than it is on the femoral head of the modern human. In quadrupeds the tibial tuberosity is more rounded and less sharp. The sharpness of the tibial tuberosity is a more human (or bipedal) characteristic. This sharpness can be observed in Lucy, although her tibia looks more robust compared to the very tall juvenile, the Turkana boy (H. erectus). In proximal femur of the Australopithecines, there are about the same number of similarities to humans (the varied presence of the intertrochanteric line and the Obturator externus groove) than to chimpanzees (the small femoral head and the non-flaring greater trochanter) and the unique features (long femoral neck, compressed femoral neck-cross section), the more similarities to humans in the question of the distal femur (the high/very high bicondylar angle, the elliptical shaped lateral epicedial profile), and its own unique phenomena in the epiphysis shape and symmetry, but the femoral shafts more similarity to the chimpanzees gives us a very eclectic impression about the possible locomotion of the Australopithecines. As I wrote in the 1B question, the foot of the Australopithecines show very varied picture as well. It reveals both human and ape like features such as almost everything else in the Australopithecus skeleton. The more human like elements of the foot include the human-like ankle joint, the ability of a better dorsiflexion, the expanded base of the fifth metatarsal, the wide calcaneus and the presence of the longitudinal arch. On the other hand, there are several ape-like characteristics, like the shape of the phalanges, the tuberosity of the calcaneous has an oval orientation, also has a huge peroneal tubercle, the already mentioned ape-like shape of the hook of the lateral cuneiform bone, and the rounded head of the first metatarsal. Summarising, the mosaic morphology in the Australopithecines are very strongly present, they share similarities to the humans, as well as to the apes, but they also developed own features. It is very likely that they were adapted to the bipedal locomotion, but not in a modern human way. The essay has been written by using the following books as a guide-line: Aiello and Dean, 2006: An Introduction To Human Evolutionary Anatomy, reprinted in 2006, Elsevier Academic Press, London The materials during the Demo-sessions And JOHANSON-EDEY, 1990: Lucy The Beginnings of Humankind, Penguin Books, London, 1990.

Thomas W. Lippmans Understanding Islam Essays -- Thomas Lippman Islam

Thomas W. Lippman's Understanding Islam Thomas W. Lippman gives an introduction to the Muslim world in the book Understanding Islam. He has traveled throughout the Islamic world as Washington Post bureau chief for the Middle East, and as a correspondent in Indochina. This gave him, in his own words, "sharp insight into the complexities of that turbulent region." However, the purpose of the book is not to produce a critical or controversial interpretation of Islamic scripture. It is instead to give the American layman an broad understanding of a religion that is highly misunderstood by many Americans. In this way he dispels many myths about "Muslim militants," and the otherwise untrue perception of Islamic violence. In this way the American reader will become more knowledgeable about an otherwise unfamiliar topic. However, the most significant element of Lippman’s book is that it presents Islam in a simple way that makes the reader feels his awareness rise after each chapter. This encourages him to continue learn ing about the world’s youngest major religion. Understanding Islam dispels many misconceptions about the Muslim world, and presents the subject in a way that urges his reader to further his understanding of Islam through continued study. The book lays the foundation of Islamic basic beliefs and practices. Muslims believe in one God, and feel their religion continues the Judaic and Christian traditions. Arab peoples "trace their origins to the patriarch Abraham, who, according to the Koran was neither Jew nor Christian, but a kind of universal ancestor of monotheists" (5). Thus, Muslims believe in the same God as Jews and Christians. The Islamic translation for God is Allah. Many Americans think of Alla... ... Understanding Islam gives a broad outline which could help to erase American misconceptions about this religion, and could be helpful in easing global racial tensions. The book is not top of the line scholarship about Islam; it is for the uninformed or otherwise unaware beginner. After reading this book the reader has a basic understanding of Islam, devoid of many American or western misconceptions. However, Lippman explains that the holy book is not spelled "Koran," but rather "Qur-an," though he uses the first spelling throughout the book (56). The real version is written in arabic, but I would have rather him used the more authentic spelling. In this way I see that this book was beneficial, but not the final word. It is a good book because it lays a positive foundation for Americans, and hopes to inspire them to continue their study of a fascinating religion. Thomas W. Lippman's Understanding Islam Essays -- Thomas Lippman Islam Thomas W. Lippman's Understanding Islam Thomas W. Lippman gives an introduction to the Muslim world in the book Understanding Islam. He has traveled throughout the Islamic world as Washington Post bureau chief for the Middle East, and as a correspondent in Indochina. This gave him, in his own words, "sharp insight into the complexities of that turbulent region." However, the purpose of the book is not to produce a critical or controversial interpretation of Islamic scripture. It is instead to give the American layman an broad understanding of a religion that is highly misunderstood by many Americans. In this way he dispels many myths about "Muslim militants," and the otherwise untrue perception of Islamic violence. In this way the American reader will become more knowledgeable about an otherwise unfamiliar topic. However, the most significant element of Lippman’s book is that it presents Islam in a simple way that makes the reader feels his awareness rise after each chapter. This encourages him to continue learn ing about the world’s youngest major religion. Understanding Islam dispels many misconceptions about the Muslim world, and presents the subject in a way that urges his reader to further his understanding of Islam through continued study. The book lays the foundation of Islamic basic beliefs and practices. Muslims believe in one God, and feel their religion continues the Judaic and Christian traditions. Arab peoples "trace their origins to the patriarch Abraham, who, according to the Koran was neither Jew nor Christian, but a kind of universal ancestor of monotheists" (5). Thus, Muslims believe in the same God as Jews and Christians. The Islamic translation for God is Allah. Many Americans think of Alla... ... Understanding Islam gives a broad outline which could help to erase American misconceptions about this religion, and could be helpful in easing global racial tensions. The book is not top of the line scholarship about Islam; it is for the uninformed or otherwise unaware beginner. After reading this book the reader has a basic understanding of Islam, devoid of many American or western misconceptions. However, Lippman explains that the holy book is not spelled "Koran," but rather "Qur-an," though he uses the first spelling throughout the book (56). The real version is written in arabic, but I would have rather him used the more authentic spelling. In this way I see that this book was beneficial, but not the final word. It is a good book because it lays a positive foundation for Americans, and hopes to inspire them to continue their study of a fascinating religion.

Communication and Direct Eye Contact

Where Do We Stand? O Lisa Davis Lisa Davis in this article focuses on cross-cultural difference in the use of personal space and on conflicts and misunderstanding that often arises from these differences. She maintains that with enough training and preaching. People can learn non-verbal habitat of other culture and minimize intercultural problems. She says the main cause of non-verbal conflict is the tendency for people to interrelate the non-verbal pattern of other culture in terms of the pattern within their own culture.These ethnocentric viewings of reality often result in misinterpretation negative value judgment and feeling of discomfort. 1) American use more direct eye contact than do Japanese (Para 6) 2) South American converse at a closet distant and establish more direct eye contact than do another European. (Para 7) 3) Men tend to converse at a greater distance than do women. (Para 8&9) 4) Women established more eyes contact than do men. (Para 9) ) Russians are a higher con tact, a people whereas establishes are a non-contact group. (para10) 6) Caucasians should view a student avoidance of eye contact as sign of deception whereas Asian teachers see such avoidance as sign of foreign. (Para 11) 7) An American who is used to standing on the corner of elevator and avoiding eyes contact with other people will feel that something is wearing if someone stand by a few inches away. (Para 17) 8) South Arabian men often hold hand while walking but American men don’t. t is important to follow the foreign country's ways when people go to foreign country because there are huge differences between own country and foreign country. Especially, the way of communication makes people  confuse. According to â€Å"Where Do We Stand† by Lisa Davis, people have different way of non-verbal communication, which depends on their cultural back ground and gender. As a result, people sometimes feel uncomfortable when they communicate with other people. In Japan, the re are some different communications styles, which make  foreigner  confuse.

Human Growth and Development Essay

Human development is marked by different stages and milestones over the lifespan. It is expressed over three domains: physical, cognitive and socio/emotional. While human physical and cognitive development is universal, socio/emotional definitions and development vary from culture to culture. Gaining a basic knowledge of human lifespan development will lead to a better understanding of the appearance, perceptions and behaviors of the self and others. Adolescence is a demanding and critical period in life. Failure to meet certain developmental milestones can have serious short- and long-term implications for the individual and society at large. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development generally occurring during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). The period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, although its physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier and end later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the onset of adolescent development, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there have been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males), and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Thus chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, most importantly from the areas of psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. Stages of Human Development The various stages of human development include the prenatal period, infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. Each stage is marked by milestones in physical, cognitive, and socio/emotional development. 1. Physical Development Physical development has to do with the way that the human body develops over a lifespan. The most rapid and complex human development occurs during the prenatal period. From infancy to early childhood, the physical milestones include developing motor skills like learning to control body movements, walk, talk, speak, use tools like spoons and forks and use the rest room. From infancy to early childhood, humans grow in height, weight and mass and get their first set of teeth. Middle childhood has only a few physical milestones, such as continued growth at a much slower rate and the gain of permanent teeth. Adolescence is the second most rapid and complex time of human development and is when the sexual maturation process begins. Females begin to grow breasts, their hips expand and they grow pubic hair and begin menstruation, which marks their physical ability to procreate. They may grow a few inches more in height. Males have significant growth spurts and develop facial and pubic hair, their voices deepen and they begin to have sperm-producing ejaculations, signifying their ability to procreate. Young adulthood is when humans are at the prime of their physical development. All of the systems are functioning optimally, making this the best time for reproduction. Middle adulthood brings the beginning of physical deterioration, such as the end of fertility in women, or menopause. The decrease in physical abilities and health for both sexes continues through late adulthood . 2. Cognitive Development Cognitive development has to do with the way humans perceive and experience the world and deals with issues like memory, thinking and decision-making processes and concept comprehension. During the prenatal period, cognitive development is highly enveloped in physical development as the primary tool for cognition; the brain is still being developed. During infancy and early childhood, milestones like speaking, comprehension and object differentiation occur. Thoughts about the world are simplistic, and judgments are made in an either/or framework. Middle childhood brings the beginning of concrete and logical thinking, and adolescence brings about a phase where cognitive judgments are often overridden by feelings and impulses because of the body’s rapidly changing physical and biological climate. Young adulthood is the human cognitive prime, as the capacity for rapid and accurate memory, thought processing and information analysis function at peak levels. Perceptions of the world, judgment and morality become more sophisticated and complex. During middle adulthood, humans are experts at problem solving, although they begin to experience some signs of decline with speed in processing and recall. Late adulthood signifies the continued deterioration of cognitive abilities. Theoretical perspectives There are two perspectives on adolescent thinking. One is the constructivist view of cognitive development. Based on the work of Piaget, it takes a quantitative, state-theory approach, hypothesizing that adolescents’ cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic. The second is the information-processing perspective, which derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process. Improvements in cognitive ability By the time individuals have reached age 15 or so, their basic thinking abilities are comparable to those of adults. These improvements occur in five areas during adolescence: 1. Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attention, the process by which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another. Divided attention, the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time, also improves. 2. Memory. Improvements are seen in both working memory and long-term memory. 3. Processing speed. Adolescents think more quickly than children. Processing speed improves sharply between age five and middle adolescence; it then begins to level off at age 15 and does not appear to change between late adolescence and adulthood. 4. Organization. Adolescents are more aware of their own thought processes and can use mnemonic devices and other strategies to think more efficiently. 5. Meta-cognition – It often involves monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Adolescents’ improvements in knowledge of their own thinking patterns lead to better self-control and more effective studying. 3. Socio/Emotional Development Socio/emotional development has to do with how an individual is able to handle emotions, relationships, social situations, and the various roles demanded of them by society. Some aspect of Socio/Emotional standards, such as social expectations, relationships, and roles vary from culture to culture. During infancy and early childhood, the primary relationships are with the parents and based on attachment. Environmental exploration, impulsivity, differentiation of self (from others) and the basics of social interaction are learnt. In early childhood, impulsivity begins to give way to control, and awareness of consequences significantly affects behavioral choices. Middle childhood begins the transition from family orientation to peer orientation, which carries on into adolescence. Issues of identify, sexuality and sexual expression, conflict and resolution and internal stability prevail. By young adulthood, the focus shifts from peers to career, social role, building external stability, finding a mate and starting a family. Middle adulthood is met with the psychological and emotional challenges of facing the mid-life crisis, and a life analysis and inventory is taken. Late adulthood marks the transition from the mid-life crisis. Life reflection, acceptance of death, and legacy building or making social contributions also occur at this phase. I. Identity development Among the most common beliefs about adolescence is that it is the time when teenagers form their personal identities. Egocentrism is being performed by adolescents who then form self-consciousness of wanting to feel important in their peer groups and having social acceptance of fitting into the group. Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one’s thoughts about the self. Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991). The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. II. Self Concept Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves with physical traits whereas as adolescents, they define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions. III. Sense of identity Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson’s theory of stages of development includes the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of â€Å"identity achievement† but also stressed that the identity challenge â€Å"is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time†. Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their crowd membership. â€Å"Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers.† Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers â€Å"finding their selves†; Fashion is always evolving , which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers. IV. Environment and identity An adolescent’s environment plays a huge role in their identity development. While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies have shown that the more privileged upbringing one has the more successful they will be in the development of their identity. The forming of an adolescent’s identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This therefore has caused various factors to become important during this development. So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices, to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up i n. A child from a more privileged upbringing will be exposed to more opportunities as well as better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a very sensitive period in the development process of one’s life and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major affect on decisions someone will make. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development. V. Sexual orientation and identity Sexual orientation has been defined as â€Å"an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions†. In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty. VI. Self-esteem The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. â€Å"Barometric self-esteem† fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence. Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends; the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends’ approval or couldn’t find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls will suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. ECONOMIC CRISES CAN HAVE SERIOUS IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Financial crises, at both the global and the national level, are ubiquitous. This raises concern about the human impacts of crises, especially among more vulnerable populations in developing countries. This is particularly true during childhood and youth, when the brain is developing rapidly, and when socio-emotional and behavioral developments are at their peak. Given the cumulative nature of human development, shortfalls or setbacks at any stage of the life course—from the antenatal environment through adolescence—are often difficult to reverse later in life and may have severe consequences for individual development as well as for the growth and development of successful communities. Thus, it is essential to protect and promote human development in the face of adversity. Three interrelated concepts provide the foundation for understanding the potential impacts of shocks on children and youth. a) Timing: Human development is characterized by critical periods of life during which certain investments must be made to facilitate the achievement of specific milestones in development, or stage salient developmental tasks. These age-related expectations for the mastery of particular tasks provide benchmarks for the abilities that an individual should ideally master by different ages, and that are correlated with successful development and transition to subsequent stages in life. Economic crises can disrupt a young person’s â€Å"normal† development by preventing or delaying the mastery of these developmental tasks at specific stages, which—if uncorrected—can have potential long term consequences. b) Context: Development in childhood and youth is influenced by diverse contexts or settings (family, peers, schools, communities, socio-cultural belief systems, policy regimes, and the economy). The relative importance of these settings changes during the life course. Interactions among these settings determine both the transmission of shocks such as a financial crisis to the young person’s immediate environment and the impact of the shock on her development. As development is partly a function of a person’s repeated interactions with her immediate environment (the proximal processes of human development), shocks can disrupt the contexts in which these processes occur, and hinder a young person’s ability to develop successfully. c) Transmission mechanisms: There are numerous pathways through which a crisis can affect the well-being and development of a young person. Crises may be experienced directly at the individual level (through e.g. a change in aspirations and identity), or indirectly through the family, school, or other settings (through e.g. increased parental stress, parental job loss, a reduction in publicly-provided services). The developing person will experience crises through the loss in income, but also through other channels, such as psychological distress. The relevance of each particular transmission mechanism varies depending on the life stage of the person as well as on the context. Different settings may provide protective factors that prevent, mitigate or attenuate negative impacts; these factors can be a source of resilience, facilitating positive adaptive behavior on the part of the developing person. Effects of economic crises on adolescents Adolescence is a crucial stage in a person’s development. Adolescence is marked by profound physical, emotional, and social transitions; the brain undergoes significant neurological development, and cognitive and socio-emotional abilities take shape. While social expectations of the precise timing of certain transitions vary across countries and cultures, all adolescents are eventually expected to make the transition to adulthood, including entering work, becoming financially independent, and starting a family. Adapting to these new roles and successfully managing this transition requires the mastery of three interrelated stage-salient tasks: 3 a. Autonomy and relatedness: As young people mature, they renegotiate their relationships with parents, peers, teachers, and other adults. Settings outside the family, such as the workplace, become increasingly important. Young people must achieve greater personal and financial independence while maintaining positive relationships with parents and other adults. b. Identity: The process of growing more autonomous and defining one’s role in society requires that adolescents establish personal and vocational preferences and aspirations. c. Goal setting and achievement: The ability to define goals and plan and act strategically provides the foundation for subsequent growth and development. ECONOMIC CRISES CAN IMPAIR HEALTHY ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Crises affect the opportunities and support structures available to adolescents to develop the cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral competencies needed to master the stage-salient tasks. In particular, crises can lead to: i) Limited and unpredictable employment opportunities: Youth employment tends to be more vulnerable to economic crises than adult employment. Young people are often engaged in temporary and unprotected work—such as seasonal, temporary, and part-time jobs—or in sectors particularly vulnerable to economic fluctuations, such as construction. By constraining employment opportunities, as well as the availability of other entry points into the labor market, such as internships and apprenticeships, economic shocks affect the process of acquiring necessary skills, work experience, and achieving financial autonomy. Worsening labor market conditions can also affect adolescents’ expectations, vocational identity, and personal goals, as the context and perceived likelihood of achieving them may change dramatically. ii) Loss of parental employment and income, and deterioration of family dynamics: The threat or realization of losing income or assets can lead to anxiety among parents, which is then transmitted to adolescents throug h parents’ emotions and behaviors. For example, the quality of parenting can be negatively affected, impairing the development of adolescents’ autonomy and ability to form relationships. Impaired family dynamics are linked to mental health problems and heightened incidence of risky behaviors. Research also shows that adolescents who perceive economic stress within their families have lower self-expectations for the future. iii) Changes in the availability of adult role models outside the family: Crises may not only affect intra family dynamics, but also the availability of and interactions with positive role models in the school or community. Lower public expenditure can adversely affect the quality as well as quantity of schooling, while supervised extracurricular activities and out-of-school programs are often discontinued. These reduce the availability of positive adult mentoring relationships, restricting the support and guidance available to adolescents in mastering their developmental tasks. In addition to these disruptions in their immediate environment, adolescents are more aware than younger children of the impact of shocks on socioeconomic status, and they may perceive economic pressures and stigma more directly. This can lead to additional difficulties with psychosocial adjustment, and influence their self-esteem, identity, future orientation, and efficacy beliefs. THE FAILURE TO MASTER CRITICAL TASKS CAN HAVE NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS FOR ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT. Failure to achieve stage-salient developmental tasks can jeopardize other life outcomes. Although there is considerable heterogeneity across individuals, crises can have particularly negative consequences in the following areas: a) Schooling & Employment: Contrary to the experience of idiosyncratic shocks, such as parental job loss, there is no compelling evidence that young people leave school during aggregate crises to work and support the household. Young people have fewer job opportunities in a crisis; this decreases the perceived returns to entering the labor market relative to remaining in school. On the other hand, diminished opportunities for employment can severely affect those young people who do try to enter the labor market. Early un- and underemployment is known to have serious long-term effects on future employment and lifetime income, and these young people often fail to catch up when the economy rebounds. b) Mental health: By altering their relationships, identity, and goals for the future, unexpected life events can affect adolescents’ physical and mental health. Difficulty in the labor market may lead to hopelessness and lower self-esteem, especially for young people who are in the process of forming occupational identities. In fact, unemployment experienced at early ages is associated with stress, depression, and illness later in life. Mental health problems during youth can also lead to lower educational achievement, increased substance abuse, violence, and risky sexual behavior. c) Risky behavior: Economic adversity and its effects on the adolescent and her immediate environment may lead to greater risk taking, although this response is by no means universal. Crises can diminish the quality of parenting, which in turn may increase the likelihood for delinquency among youth. Similarly, stress and mental health problems have been associated with risky sexual activity. But while young people who experience severe stress are more prone to substance abuse, an income shock that decreases disposable income can decrease the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. Significance Having some knowledge about human lifespan development is beneficial for many reasons. It increases self-awareness and understanding, which helps with life planning. If a female is aware of the stages of her physical development, for example, she will know that her natural childbearing years are limited. If she wants to have children, she can use family planning to make choices about her education, career and mate to support this goal. Additionally, this knowledge can be helpful for improving relationships and interpersonal communication and resolving conflicts. Conclusion Human development is marked by different stages and milestones over the lifespan. It is expressed over three domains: physical, cognitive and socio/emotional. While human physical and cognitive development is universal, socio/emotional definitions and development vary from culture to culture. Gaining a basic knowledge of human lifespan development will lead to a better understanding of the appearance, perceptions and behaviors of the self and others. Physical development has to do with the way that the human body develops over a lifespan. The most rapid and complex human development occurs during the prenatal period. From infancy to early childhood, the physical milestones include developing motor skills like learning to control body movements, walk, talk, speak, use tools like spoons and forks and use the rest room. From infancy to early childhood, humans grow in height, weight and mass and get their first set of teeth. Cognitive development has to do with the way humans perceive and experience the world and deals with issues like memory, thinking and decision-making processes and concept comprehension. During the prenatal period, cognitive development is highly enveloped in physical development as the primary tool for cognition; the brain is still being developed. Socio/emotional development has to do with how an individual is able to handle emotions, relationships, social situations, and the various roles demanded of them by society. Some aspect of Socio/Emotional standards, such as social expectations, relationships, and roles vary from culture to culture. REFERENCE 1. Human Development, Diane E. Papalia, 9th edition 2. Boyd, D., and Bee, H., (2006). Lifespan Development, Fourth Edition. Boston, MA. Pearson Education, Inc. 3. Chassin, L., A. Hussong, and A. 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